The Shaka Pahlavas or Scytho Parthians
The Shakas or the Scythians destroyed Greek power in both India and Bactria. They controlled a much larger area of India than the Greeks. There were five branches of the Shakas with their seats of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan. This phase saw a distinct advance and inculcation of different cultures and left a profound impact on the history of India.
BACKGROUND AND POLITICAL HISTORY
A series of invasions began in about 200 B.C. Among the invaders, the first to cross the Hindu Kush were the Greeks whose rule extended over Bactria or Bahlika which was situated to the south of the Oxus River in the area covered by north Afghanistan. The Seleucid empire that had previously ruled over Bactria and the adjoining areas of Iran called Parthia, was now weakened. Pushed by the Scythian tribes, the Bactrian Greeks and then the Shakas were forced to invade India. The successors of Ashoka were too weak to resist this tide of foreign invasions.
The term Shaka Pahlava or Scytho Parthians is used to refer to different groups of invaders who came from Parthia into northwest India in the 1st century BCE. The consolidation of the Chinese empire by the emperor Qin Shi Huang led to a series of tribal revolts in the central Asian region. The great Yueh Chi tribe displaced the Shakas who moved southwards into Afghanistan and later to northwestern India. There were five different branches of the Shakas with their seats of powers in different areas of India and Afghanistan. One branch of the Shakas settled in Afghanistan; the second in the Punjab with Taxila as their capital; the third one had its seat in Mathura where they ruled for about two centuries; the fourth branch established its control over western India where they continued to rule until the 4th century BCE while the fifth branch established its sway over the upper Deccan region.
There was no effective resistance to the advancing Shakas except one in about 57-58 B.C. The king of Ujjain who called himself Vikramaditya succeeded in driving them out during his reign. He introduced a new era known as the Vikram Samvat to commemorate his victory over the Shakas in 57 BCE.
Although they established their rule in different parts of the country, the Shakas who ruled in western India held power for a considerable length of time i.e., about four centuries. The sea born trade in Gujarat proved to be the most beneficial for them and they issued a large number of silver coins. The most famous ruler of the Shaka regime was Rudradaman I (AD 130-50). He ruled not only over Sindh but also over a large part of Gujarat, the Konkan, the Narmada valley, Malwa, and Kathiawar. His most important contribution was the repairing of the Sudarshana lake in the semi-arid zone of the Kathiawar region which had been in use for irrigation for a long time and dated back to the Mauryas. The Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman consisting of 20 lines of writing is the first long inscription in Sanskrit in the subcontinent. It is written in Brahmi script and Sanskrit language. The main purpose of the inscription is to record the restoration of the Sudarshana lake by the mahakshtrapa Rudradaman. The construction was started by Vaishya Pushyagupta, the provincial governor of Chandragupta Maurya and was completed by the yavana Tushaspa, the provincial governor of the area during Ashoka.
However, during the reign of Rudradaman, there was a terrible storm that led to the bursting of the lake which was later restored by him.
The Shaka domination in northwestern India was followed by that of the Parthians. They are mentioned in ancient Indian texts as Schytho-Parthians. They are represented by Gondophernes who are identified with king Guduvhara during whose reign St. Thomas is said to have come to India to propagate Christianity.
The Shakas and Scytho-Parthians ruled through governors or subordinate rulers known as kshatrapas and mahakshtrapas. In the early centuries CE, there were two important lines of Kshatrapa rulers- the Kshahratas and Kardamakas. The Kshahrata dynasty included rulers like Bhumaka and Nahapana. The Shaka kshatrapas were involved in prolonged conflict with the Satavahanas and the Shaka ruler Nahapana was apparently killed by the Satavahana ruler Gautamiputra Satakarni. This incident is evident from the discovery of Gautamiputra’s inscription from the Nashik and Pune districts.
After the end of the Kshahrata dynasty the Kardamkas rose to prominence in western India. The founder of this dynasty was Chashtana. The famous ruler Rudradaman I also belonged to the dynasty of the Kardamaka. His inscription mentions his conquests of Malwa, Saurashtra, Gujarat, northern Konkan, and the Maheshwar area on the Narmada. He is said to have defeated Satakarni twice.
The important Shaka rulers included-
Also known as Moga, he was the earliest king of this dynasty. He ruled over Gandhara and established his capital at Sirkap. He issued many coins including Buddhist and Hindu symbols. He was followed by Chashtana.
He was a Saka ruler of the western kshatrapas dynasty who ruled over Ujjain.
He is considered to be the greatest ruler among the Shakas. He was the grandson of Chashtana. The high points of his reign included the repair of the Sudarshana lake.
CULTURAL CONSEQUENCES
Structures and Pottery
The Shaka phase saw a distinct advance in building activities. There began the use of burnt bricks for flooring and tiles for both flooring and roofing. The period also saw the construction of brick walls.
The characteristic pottery of this period is red ware, both plain and polished, with medium to fine fabric and the distinctive pots are sprinklers and spouted channels.
Coinage
Indo-Scythian coinage was generally of a high artistic quality and quite realistic. They used the Greek language on the obverse and the Kharoshthi language on the reverse.
The portrait of the king is never shown and is replaced by depictions of the king on horse or sometimes sitting cross legged on a cushion. The reverse of their coins show Greek divinities. Buddhist symbolism is present throughout the Shaka coinage.
Stone Pellets
Numerous stone pellets found in Gandhara are good examples of Indo Scythian art. These pellets combine Greek and Iranian influences and are often realised in a simple and archaic style.
Religion
The Shakas seem to have been followers of Buddhism and many of their practices were a continuation of those of the Indo-Greeks. Excavations at the Butkara stupa in Swat region have yielded various Buddhist sculptures seemingly belonging to this period. The Mathura lion capital mentions a dedication of a relic of the Buddha in a stupa.
Literature
The Shakas receive numerous mention in texts like the Puranas, the Manusmriti, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Mahabhashiya of Patanjali, the brihatsamhita of Mahavira,etc.
Better Cavalry
The Shakas added new phase to the Indian culture and immensely enriched it. They did not have their own script, language, or any organised religion and so they adopted these components from the Indian culture. They introduced better cavalry and the use of riding horses on a large scale. They were excellent horsemen and so introduced the turban, tunic, trousers, and heavy long coats. They also brought caps, helmets, and boots with them.
Polity
The Shakas strengthened the idea of the divine origin of kingship and used it to consolidate their position. They adopted the satrap system of government in which the empire was divided into numerous satrapies, and each was placed under the rule of a satrap.
Some curious practices like hereditary dual rule with two kings ruling the kingdom simultaneously were begun.
NEW ELEMENTS IN THE INDIAN SOCIETY
The Shakas as well as their predecessors and successors eventually lost their identity with time and were completely absorbed in the Indian society. As most of them came as conquerors, they were adopted as a warrior class - Kshatriyas. According to the lawmaker Manu, the Shakas and the Parthians were Kshatriyas who had deviated from their duties and thus had fallen in status. They came to be considered as second-class Kshatriyas.
DECLINE OF THE SHAKAS
After their defeat at the hands of Satavahana emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni, the Shaka empire began to decline. They ruled northwest India and Pakistan until the death of Azes II after which the territory was taken over by the Kushanas. Their regime in western India ended after the defeat of the last western satrap ruler Rudrasimha III by Chandragupta III of the Gupta dynasty.
